Essays/Under

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The conjunction under f&.g is defined as

  f&.g y  gi f g y
x f&.g y  gi (g x) f (g y)

where gi is the inverse of g . "Under" elucidates the important but often mysterious concept of duality in mathematics.

The "under anaesthetics" example provides a graphic illustration. Several steps are composed:

  apply anaesthetics
    cut open
      do procedure
    sew up
  wake up from anaesthetics

The inverse steps are pretty important! The "pipe laying" example provides another illustration: dig a trench, lay the pipe, cover the trench. Finally, a more poetic example: ashes to ashes, dust to dust.

Some examples of "under" in J:


  • each:  f&.>
  • Logic (De Morgan's Laws)
      +.&.-. and
      *.&.-. or
  • Arithmetic
      +&.^. times
      +&.(10&^.) times
      -&.^. reciprocal, divide
      +:&.^. square
      -:&.^. square root
      *&.^ plus
      %&.^ minus
      >.&.- floor, minimum
      <.&.- ceiling, maximum
      ,&0&.#: double
      }:&.#: integer quotient of division by 2
      +/\. -: +/\&.|.
      x&<.&.(+/\) y usage in reservoirs y to a maximum of x; see J Forum msg
      >:&.% gives x%x+y for a ratio x%y
  • Trigonometric identities
      |@sin -: -.&.*:@cos
      |@cos -: -.&.*:@sin
      sin -: sinh&.j.
      tan -: tanh&.j.
      sinh -: sin&.j.
      tanh -: tan&.j.
      sin -: ^ .: - &.j.
  • Geometry
      -.&.*: length of opposite from adjacent when hypotenuse is 1
      +&.*: diagonal from rectangle sides
      +/&.(*:"_) norm
      +/&.(^&p) norm
  • Primes and factoring
      i.&.(p:^:_1) all the primes less than a number
      <:&.(p:^:_1) the largest prime less than a number
      [&.(p:^:_1) y or next prime
      */@(i.&.(p:^:_1))@>: primorial (see Prime APVs)
      +:&.(_&q:) square
      -:&.(_&q:) square root
      <./&.(_&q:)@, GCD
      >./&.(_&q:)@, LCM
      + /&.(_&q:)@, times
      - /&.(_&q:)@, divide
      (- ~:)&.q: Euler's totient function
      * -.@%@~.&.q: Euler's totient function
      >:@#.~/.~&.q: sum of divisors
      ~.&.q: the square-free part of a number
      >:&.(q:^:_1) demonstration that there is no largest prime
  • Various means
      am=: +/ % # arithmetic mean
      am&.:^. geometric mean
      am&.:% harmonic mean
      am&.:*: root mean square
  • Arithmetic on sequences of bits:
      +&.#.
      -&.#.
      *&.#.
      <.@%&.#.
  • Matrix algebra
      %. -: %.&.|: real matrices
      %. -: %.&.(+@|:) complex matrices
      %. -: %.&.(M&(+/ .*)) M is an invertible matrix
  • Identities for matrix products
      x=: +/ .*
      x/ -: x/&.(|:"2"_)@|. i.e.
      x/ -: x/&.(%."_)@|. i.e.
    [try e.g.  (x/ ; x/&.(|:"2"_)@|. ; x/&.(%."_)@|.) ?.5 2 2$0 ]
  • Round to p decimal places
      ([: <. +&0.5) &. (*&(10^p))
      ] &. ((j.p)&":)
  • Decimal digits of an integer: ,.&.":
  • Reverse bits and digits
      |.&.(10&#.^:_1) reversing base 10 digits
      |.&.": reversing base 10 digits
      1&|.&.#: survivor number in the Josephus problem
      /:~&.(|."1@#:) arrange a list of distinct positive integers so that no average is spanned
  • Reverse the words of a sentence: |.&.;:
  • Caesar cipher (Julius Caesar used n=:13)
      A=: 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz'
      (#A)&|@(+&n) &. (A&i.) encrypt
      (#A)&|@(-&n) &. (A&i.) decrypt
  • Operate on text as integer:  'ibm' -: >:&.:(a.&i.)'hal'
  • Extend verb domain: =&0`(0 ,:~ %)}&.,: under itemize succeeds with scalar argument
  • The e.g.f. of the Fibonacci sequence is . Thus:  (^@-: * 5&o.&.((-:%:5)&*)) t:
  • ack is Ackermann's Function. If x ack y is f&.(3&+) y , then (x+1) ack y is f^:(1+y)&.(3&+) 1
  • The next Gray code word:  >: &. #. &. (~:/\)
  • n-th Chebyshev polynomials
      acos=: _2&o.
      n&*&.acos the first kind
      (n+1)&*&.acos %&(-.&.*:) ] absolute value of the second kind
  • The square-free part of a polynomial:  ({. , ~.&.>@{:)&.p.
  • The inverse of a permutation
      |:&.({=)
      %.&.({=)
      |.&.>&.C.
  • The next/previous permutation
     rfd=: +/@(<{.)\."1 reduced from direct, from Permutation Index
     dfr=: /:@/:@,/"1 direct from reduced
     b=: (-i.)# p
     >:&.(b&#.)&.(rfd :. dfr) p the next    permutation
     <:&.(b&#.)&.(rfd :. dfr) p the previous permutation
  • Fast Fourier Transform
     +//.@(*/) = *&.FFT polynomial multiplication on arguments of length 2^n



Contributed by Roger Hui, with further contributions by Raul Miller, Ewart Shaw, and David Lambert.